Ancient Egypt was described by the ancient historian Herodotus as a land where men behaved in ways “opposite to other men in almost all matters” and one in which women “frequent the market and carry on trade, while the men remain at home and weave.” In antiquity, few women were granted close to what could be considered equal rights, so while these statements are certainly hyperbolic, it must have been a remarkable observation for Herodotus to learn that men and women lived freely. Ancient Egypt has since maintained a reputation as an ancient egalitarian kingdom, but to what extent is this an accurate perception?
Ancient Egypt was known for its iconic female rulers, however, the upper strata of society were still dominated by men. Female rulers could only come to power through exceptional circumstances, such as acting as regents in the stead of their infant sons. The masculine pharaoh was linked to the religious belief that a ruler was the human manifestation of the male god Amun-Ra. Interestingly, Pharaoh Hatshepsut employed this belief to her own advantage and used her priestess credentials to affirm her pharaonic title through an oracle.
Administrative positions within the royal court were male-dominated; female employees of the royal palace held housekeeping roles with varying degrees of responsibility. While women could attain political and religious power, their power was always somehow achieved in relation to a powerful male. Men tended to have a higher level of education when it came to scribal studies and preparation for administrative roles. Lactating women could be employed as wet nurses for royal children, and outside of the royal palaces, women often found work in textiles, fragrance making and entertainment industries. Women also dominated midwifery and notable female physicians have been evidenced. As nepotism and class categorization were openly upheld in Ancient Egyptian culture, opportunities within education and careers directly correlated with the social class one was born into. Both men and women who were born into the lower social classes would find economic or social progression nearly impossible, regardless of their determination.
There were few legal differences between men and women. For example, there were no gender restrictions on the rights to property and land ownership: if a woman was to choose to live an existence independent of ties to any man, it would be entirely feasible for her to do so if she had the means. Women also had powers in the courts and could represent themselves, act as witnesses and initiate divorce. Most women were granted sole custody and guardianship of their children in successful divorce cases, with living fathers still expected to provide for the children financially. With all that said, there were certain legal limitations depending on social class. Meritocracy was not an Ancient Egyptian virtue – so unfortunately women of low economic status were just as unlikely as their male counterparts to have many assets worthy of legal protection. With women being seen as default guardians and with social mobility being virtually impossible, women of lower classes lived far from prosperous lives.
The Egyptians were not puritanical and openly embraced humankind’s sexual nature. While reproduction and birth were socially venerated, contraceptives such as crocodile dung pessaries were available to women wanting to engage in protected intercourse. There is also evidence of abortions being performed in the New Kingdom. It is not clear how accessible reproductive and natal health care was; however, given what we know of Egypt’s economic structure, it was certainly seen as more of a privilege than a right. Crocodile dung was readily available along the banks of the Nile and while it is unclear how effective this method of contraception was, it was likely an accessible option for women regardless of their economic standing.
Most women would settle down with a husband and become the ‘Mistress of the House.’ Women were generally expected to take charge of household duties and were respected as caretakers and housekeepers; however, they were not bound solely to this role. The most important element of any household was maintaining order, which was achieved by husbands working to provide for their families, and women staying at home, nursing, and caring for their children. Women who were able to arrange childcare or who did not have children were free to work, yet domestic duties came first where necessary.
Despite men being taught from a young age to respect their wives’ autonomy and be respectful husbands, it is in matrimony that one of Ancient Egypt’s starkest legal discrepancies between genders existed. It is not clear to what extent it was frowned upon for non-royal husbands to sleep with unmarried women, but for wives, this was a crime that carried some brutal punishments, not limited to the death penalty, if the disgruntled husband wished to pursue such charges. Men who slept with married women were also subjected to harsh punishments, as adultery was seen as a great disruption to the equilibrium within the household, however, it seems that women absorbed the brunt of the stigma of adultery.
Women in Ancient Egypt certainly enjoyed more freedoms than women within other cultures throughout history and had greater rights and opportunities than some women do, even in the present day. Yet, due to patriarchal structures, predisposition to gestational responsibility, and religious and cultural barriers, women still faced challenges when it came to gender equality in Ancient Egypt.